ΑΡΕΤΗ
Arete is not "virtue" in the Christian moral sense but excellence, the perfection of a being in its kind. In Aristotle (Nicomachean Ethics II.6) it is defined as "a disposition to choose" (hexis prohairetike) — a stable state of choosing. Its mathematical isopsephy with dokimos (he who endures testing) binds virtue to its ongoing verification.
Definition
According to LSJ, arete means "excellence of any kind, distinction"; from there "manly courage," "moral virtue," "worth," "reputation." The root is connected to aristos — the best.
In the archaic meaning (Homer), arete is par excellence martial bravery — what makes one a superior warrior. In Hesiod and the lyric poets, the meaning expands to every kind of excellence — in citizen, in horseman, in athlete.
With Socrates and Plato, arete becomes ethical/epistemological: Socrates argues that arete is knowledge (episteme) — no one errs willingly, but only from ignorance. Plato develops the four "cardinal" virtues: wisdom, courage, temperance, justice (Republic 427e).
Aristotle gives the most complete definition (Nicomachean Ethics II.6, 1106b36): arete is "a disposition concerned with choice, lying in a mean" — a stable state of choosing, which lies in the mean between two extremes.
Etymology
Related: ἄριστος, ἀριστεύω, ἀριστεία, ἀρέσκω ("to please," originally "to fit"), ἁρμονία (from ἁρμός = "joint"). In Latin: virtus (etymologically from vir = "man" — bravery as male excellence, a parallel evolution with Greek arete).
Main Meanings
- Excellence, distinction — the general meaning — what makes something best in its kind.
- Homeric bravery — martial virtue — what makes one a hero.
- Arete as craft — the arete of the craftsman, the physician, the sailor (Plato, Meno 73c-d).
- Socratic arete — virtue as episteme — "no one is willingly bad."
- Cardinal virtues — the four Platonic: wisdom, courage, temperance, justice.
- Aristotelian hexis — stable disposition of choice in the mean (N.E. 1106b36).
- Stoic arete — the only true good — other things are "indifferent."
- Theological virtues — in NT/scholastic tradition: faith, hope, love (1 Cor. 13:13).
Philosophical Journey
Arete is the most systematically elaborated concept of ancient ethical philosophy. Every school tried to redefine it.
In Ancient Texts
Four passages covering the full spectrum:
Lexarithmic Analysis
The lexarithmos of the word ΑΡΕΤΗ is 414, from the sum of its letter values:
414 decomposes into 400 (hundreds) + 10 (tens) + 4 (units).
The 18 Methods
Applying the 18 traditional lexarithmic methods to the word ΑΡΕΤΗ:
| Method | Result | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| Isopsephy | 414 | Base lexarithmos |
| Decade Numerology | 9 | 4+1+4=9 — Ennead, number of fullness and perfect completion |
| Letter Count | 5 | 5 letters — Pentad, the five core virtues (4 cardinal + 1 justice as harmony) |
| Cumulative | 4/10/400 | Units 4 · Tens 10 · Hundreds 400 |
| Odd/Even | Even | Feminine force |
| Left/Right Hand | Right | Divine (≥100) |
| Quotient | — | Comparative method |
| Notarikon | Α-Ρ-Ε-Τ-Η | Courage, Strength, Habit, Perfect, Ethical (interpretive) |
| Grammatical Groups | 3V · 1SV · 1M | 3 vowels (Α,Ε,Η) · 1 semi-vowel (Ρ) · 1 mute (Τ) — balanced structure |
| Palindromes | Yes (numeric) | Number reads same reversed |
| Onomancy | — | Comparative |
| Sphere of Democritus | — | Divination with lunar day |
| Zodiacal Isopsephy | Mercury ☿ / Libra ♎ | 414 mod 7 = 1 · 414 mod 12 = 6 |
Isopsephic Words (414)
Arete has 52 isopsephic words in LSJ. The most significant illuminate virtue as testing, as mourning of discipline, and as opposite to madness.
The LSJ lexicon contains a total of 52 words with lexarithmos 414. For the full catalog and AI semantic filtering, see the interactive tool.
Sources & Bibliography
- Liddell, H. G., Scott, R., Jones, H. S. — A Greek-English Lexicon. Entries ἀρετή, ἄριστος.
- Homer — Iliad, the archaic meaning (martial excellence).
- Hesiod — Works and Days 289-292 (the road of virtue).
- Plato — Meno, Protagoras, Laches, Republic IV (427e-434d, cardinal virtues).
- Aristotle — Nicomachean Ethics II (1103a-1109b), the foundational definition.
- Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius — Stoic developments of virtue as the only good.
- 1 Corinthians 13 — the three theological virtues.
- MacIntyre, A. — After Virtue (1981). Modern revival of virtue ethics.