ΑΡΕΤΗ

Definition

According to the Liddell-Scott-Jones Lexicon, ἀρετή is "excellence of any kind," "goodness," "virtue." Its original meaning, particularly in the Homeric era, was not limited to the moral sphere but referred to the capacity or perfection in performing a function. Thus, the aretē of a warrior was his courage and fighting skill, the aretē of a horse was its speed and strength, and the aretē of a tool was its effectiveness.

Over time, and especially with the development of philosophy in classical Athens, the concept of aretē shifted increasingly towards moral and intellectual excellence. For the Sophists, aretē could be taught and concerned the citizen's ability to be successful in the polis. Socrates and Plato identified it with knowledge and right action, developing the idea of the four cardinal virtues (wisdom, courage, temperance, justice).

Aristotle in his "Nicomachean Ethics" systematically analyzed aretē as a "state of character concerned with choice, lying in a mean" — a stable disposition that lies between two extremes of vice. He distinguished intellectual virtues (such as wisdom and practical wisdom) from moral virtues (such as courage and temperance), considering them essential for achieving eudaimonia, the highest good for humans.

Main Meanings

1. Functional excellence, capability — The original and broadest meaning: the ability of a being or thing to perform its function in the best possible way (e.g., the aretē of a horse).
2. Courage, martial prowess — In the Homeric era, aretē is often associated with the bravery and fighting skill of heroes.
3. Social superiority, prestige — Excellence leading to social recognition, honor, and influence.
4. Moral excellence, virtuous conduct — The dominant meaning in classical philosophy, referring to the ethical quality of character and actions.
5. Intellectual excellence, wisdom — For Plato and Aristotle, aretē also encompasses intellectual capacities, such as wisdom and practical wisdom.
6. Goodness, uprightness — A more general sense of moral quality, particularly in later uses and in the New Testament.
7. Effectiveness, success — The ability to achieve a goal or produce a desired outcome.

Word Family

ar- (root of the verb ἀραρίσκω)

The Ancient Greek root *ar- is fundamental, expressing the concept of 'fitting,' 'joining,' 'being suitable,' or 'being excellent.' From this root, a family of words developed that describe harmony, completeness, and superiority in various manifestations. Its semantic evolution from simple suitability to moral excellence demonstrates the dynamic capacity of the Ancient Greek language to construct complex concepts from basic roots. Each member of this family illuminates a different aspect of the original meaning, from the action of fitting to the quality of superiority.

In Ancient Texts

Three characteristic passages illustrating the evolution of the concept of aretē:

The 18 Methods

Applying the 18 traditional lexarithmic methods to the word ΑΡΕΤΗ:

Sources & Bibliography

• Liddell, H. G., Scott, R., Jones, H. S. — A Greek-English Lexicon, with a Revised Supplement. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996.
• Plato — Republic. Edited by John Burnet. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1903 (reprinted 1968).
• Aristotle — Nicomachean Ethics. Edited by I. Bywater. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1894 (reprinted 1962).
• Homer — Iliad. Edited by D. B. Monro and T. W. Allen. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1920 (reprinted 1969).
• Jaeger, Werner — Paideia: The Ideals of Greek Culture. Translated by Gilbert Highet. New York: Oxford University Press, 1939-1944.
• Guthrie, W. K. C. — A History of Greek Philosophy. Volumes 1-6. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962-1981.